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Foundational reference on reconstitution math and syringe conventions, plus clinician-reviewed explainers on each peptide we track. Educational only — not medical advice. All content covers research contexts.
Foundational topics
Reconstitution & dosing basics- § Reference
Peptide reconstitution 101
The two formulas behind every reconstitution calculation — concentration and volume to draw — with a fully worked example and a labeled syringe illustration.
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Reading insulin syringes for peptide work
Unit density (U-100 vs U-40), barrel capacity (0.3 mL / 0.5 mL / 1 mL), and the mcg-to-mg conversions that catch most researchers off guard.
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Peptide guides
Cited & clinician-reviewedAOD-9604: Research Overview
AOD-9604 is a modified C-terminal fragment of human growth hormone studied for lipolytic activity in preclinical and early-phase human research. Its clinical development program for obesity was ultimately discontinued.
MOTS-c: Research Overview
MOTS-c is a 16-amino acid peptide encoded within the mitochondrial genome, studied as a regulator of metabolic homeostasis and an exercise-responsive signaling molecule. The current evidence base is predominantly preclinical.
Ipamorelin: Research Overview
Ipamorelin is a selective pentapeptide ghrelin-receptor agonist that stimulates GH release without significant cortisol or prolactin elevation. This guide covers its mechanism, human pharmacokinetic data, and its distinction from less-selective GHRPs.
Sermorelin: Research Overview
Sermorelin is a 29-amino acid GHRH analogue that was once FDA-approved for pediatric growth hormone deficiency. Its commercial production was discontinued in 2008 for non-safety reasons, but it remains in use as a compounded pharmaceutical and research compound.
PT-141 / Bremelanotide: Research Overview
PT-141 (bremelanotide) is a cyclic heptapeptide melanocortin agonist FDA-approved as Vyleesi for HSDD in premenopausal women. This guide covers its central mechanism of action, the Vyleesi prescribing information, and how it differs from other melanocortin peptides.
CJC-1295 with DAC: Research Overview
CJC-1295 with DAC is a long-acting GHRH analog engineered for extended half-life via albumin binding. This guide covers its mechanism, the Teichman 2006 human PK data, and how it differs from CJC-1295 without DAC.
Thymosin Beta-4 (TB-4): Research Overview
Thymosin beta-4 is the full-length 43-amino-acid peptide best known for actin sequestration and tissue remodeling. This overview covers its structure, mechanism, clinical trial data, and how it differs from the TB-500 fragment sold by research vendors.
Liraglutide: Research Overview
Liraglutide is an FDA-approved GLP-1 receptor agonist with extensive clinical trial data supporting its effects on glycemic control and weight management. This overview summarizes the mechanism, pharmacokinetics, and research evidence.
GHK-Cu: Research Overview
GHK-Cu is a copper-bound tripeptide studied primarily in the context of topical skin regeneration, wound healing, and hair follicle biology. Injectable dose-range data in humans is sparse.
Cagrilintide: Research Overview
Cagrilintide is a long-acting amylin analogue in late-stage clinical development for obesity, studied both as monotherapy and in combination with semaglutide. This overview covers its mechanism, pharmacokinetics, and key clinical findings.
BPC-157: gastric pentadecapeptide research overview
An evidence-grounded review of BPC-157's origin, proposed molecular mechanisms, preclinical pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, and the current state of published research.
Epithalon: Research Overview
Epithalon (Epitalon) is a synthetic tetrapeptide studied for telomerase activation and longevity effects, primarily by one Russian research group. The evidence base is narrow and mostly preclinical or from the same institution.
Retatrutide: triple GIP/GLP-1/glucagon receptor agonist research overview
A comprehensive review of retatrutide's triple incretin-plus-glucagon mechanism, phase 2 clinical evidence, pharmacokinetics, and how it compares to dual-agonist alternatives.
Semaglutide: GLP-1 receptor agonist research overview
A deep look at semaglutide's mechanism, pharmacokinetics, and the landmark clinical trials that have made it one of the most studied GLP-1 receptor agonists in modern metabolic research.
Melanotan II: Research Overview
Melanotan II is a synthetic non-selective melanocortin receptor agonist with a pilot phase 1 human study but no approved indication. This guide covers the limited evidence base, regulatory status, FDA safety concerns, and how it differs from PT-141.
Tirzepatide: dual GIP/GLP-1 receptor agonist research overview
A detailed review of tirzepatide's dual incretin mechanism, pharmacokinetics, and the SURPASS and SURMOUNT clinical trial programs that define the current evidence base.
HGH Fragment 176-191: Research Overview
HGH Fragment 176-191 is the C-terminal region of human growth hormone studied for lipolytic activity. Unlike full-length GH, it does not bind the GH receptor. This guide covers the preclinical evidence base and explicitly notes the absence of published human dose-ranging data.
BPC-157: what the research actually shows
A 15-amino-acid pentadecapeptide with preclinical evidence for tissue repair. What buyers should know before comparing prices.
Tirzepatide and the shift to research-grade GLP-1s
Why the research-chemical market for dual GIP/GLP-1 agonists ballooned in 2024–2026, and what that means for buyers.
How to read a certificate of analysis (COA)
What the numbers on a peptide COA actually mean — and which ones matter most when you're comparing vendors.
Disclaimer. Articles here are educational references for the research context only. Pepticker does not provide medical, clinical, or dosing guidance. Research peptides are not approved for human consumption. Consult a qualified physician before any medical decision.